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Glossary of Terms
a b c d
e f g h
i j k l
m n o p
q r s t u
v w x y z
ABRADED.
Having a worn or rubbed appearance as a result of mechanical or chemical
action. An abrasion is a localized abraded area.
ACID FREE.
A paper product having a pH level of 7 or above.
ACIDIC.
In paper, an unstable state whereby the molecular structure of the paper
breaks down, causing discoloration and weakening of the sheet.
ACRYLIC.
Refers to a class of synthetic polymeric resins used extensively in
emulsion paints, varnishes and adhesive formulations. In sheet form the
acrylic resins bear trade names such as Plexiglas, Lucite and Perspex.
AGING.
The continuous action of atmospheric components- oxygen, moisture,
as well as light, temperature - on materials and structures, leading to
deterioration. Natural aging deterioration may also be caused by incompatible
components reacting slowly within the structure.
AIR-BRUSH (Aerograph).
A small air-gun capable of spraying paint, ink, varnish or ground
in a stream of fine droplets. It can be used in lithography and aquatint,
for the application of a flat tint, and on drawings which are to be photographed
in the half-tone technique.
ALKALINE BUFFER.
An additive used in paper-making processes and conservation treatments
that will raise the pH level.
ALUMINUM.
This metal can be used in printmaking either as a plate, or as a
support for an impression to be made upon. In the former case, it can
be (a) engraved with the burin, (b) etched with mercuric bichloride, or
(c) prepared lithographically. Impressions can be made directly onto the
metal, in particular with the screenprinting technique.
ARCHIVAL.
An archival material should have a neutral or slightly alkaline pH; it
should also have good aging properties.
ARTIST'S PROOF. (see proof)
AQUATINT. (
See print-making techniques)
A process of intaglio engraving on metal.
BEADING.
A greasy surface repels water and aqueous preparations by reducing
them to droplets. This beading will occur if, for example, a copper plate
which has not been cleaned properly is covered with Indian ink.
BED (OF PRESS).
Part of a press on which the plate or block rests during printing.
In a lithographic press, the bed is a mobile element which transports
stone to a position beneath the scraper or roller.
BEVELLING.
The edges of intaglio plates are bevelled to ensure that they do not
cut the paper in the press. A true bevel is only necessary if the plate
is more than a millimeter thick, otherwise a light rounding off is sufficient.
BITING.
The process of (1) corroding a design on a metal plate in either intaglio
(e.g. etching) or relief (e.g. line block); and (2) fixing the image on
the stone or metal plate in lithography (see: reinforcing). It is done
with a mordant: acid solution, salt (perchloride of iron), etc.
BLANCHING.
A pale discoloration on a surface as a result of superficial water
or solvent penetration.
BLANKETS.
Blankets may be used as the packing placed between the upper roller
of the intaglio press and the paper when printing. These are used to even
out the pressure being applied to a plate.
BLOCK.
The wooden element which is printed in making woodcuts and wood engraving.
The word also applies to typographical printing elements.
BLURRING.
An impression will receive a blurred appearance if the paper and
the inked roller are not properly registered during printing.
"BON A TIRER".
Literally means "Good to print:" It is generally assigned
on a trial proof by the artist when he wishes to indicate to the professional
printer that a satisfactory state of his print has been obtained. It gives
the printer the standard to which he must adhere in taking successive
impressions.
BUCKLING.
A radical shrinkage or compression of a surface (e.g panel painting)
as a result of environmental action. This often results in generalized
lifting or cleavage of the paint and decoration layers.
BURIN ENGRAVING.
Also known as line engraving.
BURNISHING.
The operation of smoothing out the grain in the mezzotint process
with the aid of the burnisher, a polished steel tool with a large round
head. It is also used on metal plates where corrections are required.
BURR.
The cutting action of a tool across a metal plate causes rough ridges
known as "burr" to be thrown up on either side of the incision. The ridges
left by a burin are quite small and are removed with the scraper; the
drypoint creates a large burr, which retains the ink and prints an area
of rich tone - the particular characteristic of this technique. Burr is
very fragile and, unless the plate is steel-faced, will rapidly wear away
in the press. Usually lasts for only 10-20 impressions after creation.
CALLIPERS.
A tool resembling a pair of dividers used in making corrections on
an intaglio plate. They locate the corresponding position, of the part
to be corrected, on the back of the plate. The indentation caused by erasing
the mistake on the front is then knocked up from behind with a hammer.
CANCELED PLATE.
When the printing of a limited edition of prints has been completed,
it is usual to deface the plates, stones, etc., to ensure that there is
no possibility of their being reprinted. A cancellation impression is
one that is taken to prove the cancellation.
CARBORUNDUM.
A very hard mixture consisting primarily of silicon carbide; it is
used as an abrasive and, in powdered form, in a method of engraving invented
by Henri Goetz. He used it to obtain a dotted effect by sprinkling it
over a metal plate (usually duralumin) which was then pulled through a
press, thereby causing the grains to penetrate the metal.
CARTOUCHE.
Ornamental design resembling the curves of a rolled-up parchment scroll.
It is found at the base of old master engravings containing inscriptions
(title, dedication, date, signature, etc.).
CHIAROSCURO or
CHIAROSCURO WOODCUT. (See printmaking
techniques)
1. In a general sense, chiaroscuro describes the method of using contrasted
light and shade as a means of illuminating and giving form to a particular
subject. 2. In a specific sense, it describes a particular woodcutting
process (chiaroscuro woodcut) in which tone blocks (usually in lighter
and darker tones of one color.) are overprinted and juxtaposed to obtain
a colored print. The same technique can be applied to lithography: different
stones are used for the varying tones.
CHINE COLLE.
Areas of thin colored tissue mounted on or glued to the surface of
a print.
CHISEL.
A flat tool used in woodcutting. It has a bevelled edge and is either
pushed manually, or knocked with a mallet, over large areas to be cut
away, i.e. those between the edges of the design and the sides of the
block.
CHROMOLITHOGRAPHY.
In a loose manner this can mean simply printing lithographs in color.
The term was specifically applied to certain nineteenth-century color
lithographs which were reproductive in intention and imitated the appearance
of oil paintings. They were printed from a large number of stones, which
demands a good technical skill.
CLEANING.
As used in painting conservation, refers to application of solvents
and other liquids to remove discolored surface coatings, as well as to
retouchings and restorations not part of the original work. In other contexts,
it refers to the removal of dirt and coating from surfaces by a variety
of liquid and/or dry techniques.
CLICHE-VERRE (GLASS
PRINT). (see printmaking techniques)
A process of planographic printing. From the French term "clichoverre."
The artist draws a design with a needle on a glass plate coated with an
opaque ground from which positive photographic prints are made on sensitized
paper as from an ordinary negative.
CLIPPING.
Reducing the margins of a print.
COLLAGRAPH.
The print resulting from a collage of materials glued together on
a base and printed as a combined relief and intaglio plate.
COLLOTYPE.
Initially called albertype, after its principal inventor, this process
consists in pouring a layer of gelatine mixed with potassium chromate
over the surface of a zinc or glass plate which is then exposed to light
to receive the image. The gelatine hardens in proportion to the amount
of light received, the unexposed parts remaining soft and capable of retaining
moisture, and the printing can therefore be done, lithographically: the
plate is dampened with water and the ink is applied with a roller. It
adheres to the surface in inverse proportion to the amount of moisture
retained, the hard areas of gelatine printing the darkest. The reticulated
grain of collotype is particularly good for reproducing watercolor, for
which the process was much used during the latter part of the nineteenth
century.
COLOR. BLOCK.
Color. blocks (or tone blocks) print the various colors in a color.
or chiaroscuro woodcut. The key block prints the outline. See: chiaroscuro,
color. printing.
COLOR PRINTING.
In woodcuts, color printing is done with several different color.
Blocks which are overprinted. Chiaroscuro woodcuts are printed in various
tones of one color. And for this reason cannot be classed as true color.
prints. A more unusual method of color. Printing can be done from one
assembled block; the various parts having been previously separated and
inked with the different colors There are two different ways of intaglio
color. Printing: with several plates, i.e. one for each color., which
are overprinted juxtaposed next to each other; or with one plate which
has been inked in different parts with separate colors applied with a
brush or stumps of rag (a la poupee or "dolly"). Several stones are used
in lithographic color. Printing, one or the other sometimes replaced by
a zinc plate. Known as chromolithography (or chromo), it was a popular
technique in the nineteenth century. Colors can be printed side by side,
or overprinted, in screenprinting, by preparing the screen in such a way
that a place is reserved for each color. without the various inks smudging.
In letterpress, offset lithography and photogravure several blocks/plates
are also used: there are three if the base colors, blue, red and yellow,
are used (by overprinting different colors can be obtained), or four if
grey or black is added to emphasize the dark areas. Printing with different
colored blocks, plates or stones demands exact registration involving
a careful concordance of the variously colored parts. Usually colors are
printed from light to dark but often the blues are printed first. N.B.
There is a difference between color. Prints and impressions taken from
a single colorblock, plate or stone (other than brown or black). Neither
must they be confused with handcolored prints.
CONSERVATION.
The restoration of works of art with the aim to correct damage caused
by handling, excessive exposure to light, smoke, dust, humidity or aridity,
and contact with liquid or any other destructive substance. Present methods
allow cleaning and repair, provided that the print has not been subjected
to irreversible alterations.
CONSERVATOR.
A person specially trained in the preventive care and maintenance
as well as restoration of works of art and museum objects. The term restorer
traditionally refers to a person trained in carrying out remedial or restorative
treatments. In Francophone countries the term restaurateur covers both
kinds of person; the term conservator referring to a curator or a keeper.
COPPER.
The most important metal used in engraving. It is supple to work,
yet strong enough to endure the press, receptive to ink and wipes clean
without leaving traces. It polishes well and is also sensitive to mordants.
It does, however, tarnish quickly if left unprotected.
COPPER-FACING.
The application of a very thin layer of copper onto a metal plate
by means of electrolysis. Zinc must initially be copper-faced if a steel-facing
is to be applied.
COPY.
A print is a copy if the designer has taken the image from another
artist.
CORROSIVE AGENTS.
Products used for cleaning and biting the various fabrics, papers,
stones and metals used in printmaking are divided into three types: acids,
alkalis and salts. Nitric acid is the most commonly used of the acids.
It bites copper (c. 15 degrees Baume), zinc and steel (between 5 degrees
15 degrees Baume), in a rapid, shallow manner; it is also used for cleaning
and for preparing the lithographic stone. Sulphuric acid is used for cleaning
and biting steel. Hydrochloric acid attacks zinc and steel and in a diluted
form is used for washing. Phosphoric acid is used for cleaning ferrous
metals and aluminium as well as for preparing zinc and aluminium for the
lithographic and offset techniques. Hydrofluoric acid attacks glass and
ceramic. Acetic acid (vinegar) was formerly used frequently in the composition
of etches. Of the alkalis, soda is the most commonly used: as a detergent
for washing the screen, for cleaning metal plates, and for bleaching.
It is used particularly on zinc, iron and aluminium, as well as on organic
materials. Potash possesses approximately the same characteristics. Ammonia
is used as a cleaning agent. The most frequently used of the salts is
ferric chloride, a slow etch which penetrates in depth while preserving
the form of the design. On account of these qualities it is much used
in aquatint and photogravure.
COUTERPROOF.
An impression taken from a freshly printed sheet onto another piece
of paper. It shows the design in the same direction as that on the plate,
stone or block; the artist uses it for assessing corrections to be made.
COVERAGE.
The ability of an ink to cover and absorb into a surface as regards
the amount required for printing. It is relative to the receptivity of
the support to the ink.
CRACKS.
In grounds, paint layers, surface coatings (of paintings), the term
designates a system of fissures that develop with the aging of the materials,
or as a result of environmental action (expansion, contraction of the
support), or a combination of both. There are various recognized systems
of cracks, or craquelure, which result from both natural and environmental
causes, and are characteristic too of the artist's technique and materials.
CRAYON.
Various types of crayon are used in printmaking. The greasy lithographic
crayon is made with a natural grease or a chemical. A corrective crayon
is used in lithography to remove lines or blemishes.
DABBER.
There are various types of dabbers used in printmaking. The inking
dabber, a round tool, with a wide base, is covered in leather of fine
skin; it is used for inking the incisions on an intaglio plate and the
relief areas on a wood block. A dabber is also used for laying the ground:
it is half-moon shaped, stuffed with cotton and covered in silk. In lithography,
a type of wash is applied to the stone with a dabber made of a ball of
cotton covered with fine skin.
DAMPENING.
1. Paper is often moistened before printing as this makes it more
flexible when contact is made with the block, plate, etc., and also ensures
better receptivity of the ink. 2. In lithography and offset lithography
the surface of the stone must be thoroughly dampened before the printing
ink is applied. This prevents the ink from adhering to the nongreased
parts.
DEACIDIFY.
To chemically stabilize acidic paper; can be either an aqueous or non-aqueous
treatment.
DECKLE EDGE.
The rough uneven edge on handmade paper and on some good quality
machine made paper which has been left untrimmed.
DISINTEGRATION
OF PAPER.
Printing error which occurs if paper that has been excessively dampened
is put in the press. It becomes attached to the plate and disintegrates.
DOTTER MANNER.
A method of engraving dating from the fifteenth century. Small round
holes were stamped with a punch and hammer into a metal plate which was
then inked and printed as a relief block or metalcut. The stamped work
appears as white dots surrounded by black and gives a crude effect of
tone.
DOT WORK.
A loose description of the surface of any metal plate, either relief
(see: dotted manner) or intaglio, which has been dotted or grained in
a manner such as to create an impression of tone when printed. The dots
can be achieved either by working directly on the plate or by etching
through a ground.
DOUBLE IMAGE.
A printing error which causes the image of the print to appear twice.
It occurs if the paper falls out of alignment as a result of not being
properly secured during one or, more likely, two passages through the
press. The blankets may also cause the paper to move if not properly fixed.
DRYING.
1. The layer of ink on a freshly printed sheet can dry in one of
three different ways: by evaporation of the solvent that maintains the
ink in a liquid form; by penetration of the paper; or by oxidation on
contact with the air. Inks used in relief, intaglio and lithographic printing
dry by penetrating the paper and by oxidation; those used in photogravure
dry by evaporation and by penetration. The greasy inks used in screenprinting
dry by oxidizing and by penetrating the paper; cellulose and water-based
inks also dry by evaporation and by penetration. 2. The drying of paper:
in intaglio and lithographic printing, the paper is dampened before an
impression is taken. It is then flattened by laying it between sheets
of cardboard and dried in a press for at least twelve hours. 3. Methods
of drying: in most techniques, an electric drier propelling hot or cold
air is used. In screenprinting, freshly printed sheets have to be placed
on specially constructed racks, as it i more important for them to be
kept well apart when drying than in other techniques. Usually is sufficient
to make a pile of fresh impression with interleaving sheets.
DRYPOINT. (See
printmaking techniques)
A method of intaglio engraving on metal.
EMBOSSING.
A printmaking method in which a design is impressed into paper without
the use of any ink, creating a heavily raised surface area.
ENGRAVER.
1. One who practices engraving.
2. The specialist who engraved on the stone in lithographic engraving:
a technique which was popular when lithography had a larger industry than
it has today. See: lithography. 3. In photogravure, the line engraver
specializes in the etching process.
ENGRAVING.
(See printmaking techniques)
In a general sense, the word covers all works of art or industry (both
plate and impression) which use incision as means of marking the design.
ENVIRONMENT, ENVIRONMENTAL
FACTORS.
In the context of conservation and deterioration studies, these terms
refer to physical effects of the environment, such as humidity, temperature,
light, pollutants of the atmosphere.
ETCHER.
An engraver who practices the etching process.
ETCHING. (See
printmaking techniques)
One of the most important methods of intaglio engraving.
ETCHING "A la Plume".
A method of intaglio printing in which a pen and ink drawing is made
on a clean metal plate. When this has dried, the entire surface is covered
with a light aquatint ground and placed in an acid bath which has the
effect of removing the ground where it is to be found over the ink. The
plate can then be bitten as for a normal etching. The technique is difficult
to do well, and was much improved by the sugar-lift process.
"EX-LIBRIS".
An owner's mark placed in a book, usually on the inside of the cover.
Engraved ones have been used since the fifteenth century.
EXPANSION.
The result of change in the dimension of a sheet of paper due to excess
humidity; more pronounced across the grain than with it.
FACSIMILE.
1. A print which is an exact copy of an original design, i.e. a "reproductive"
print as opposed to an "original" print. 2. In a more specific sense it
refers to the exact reproduction of a line drawing in wood engraving (as
opposed to its interpretation in a brush or wash technique) and was particularly
popular in the nineteenth century. Photomechanical processes are also
used for obtaining facsimiles.
FADING.
The gradation of a tint in an imperceptible manner.
FALSE MARGINS.
A print may not have normal margins for a variety of reasons. In this
case, it may be mounted on a larger sheet of paper which provides it with
false margins.
"FECIT".
Sometimes found after the name of the engraver or maker at the base of
a print, meaning the artist whose name it follows "made it."
FELT.
Woollen or cotton material used for packing round the printing rollers.
FIBER FILL.
Utilizing paper pulp to complete losses in a sheet of paper.
FILLET.
1. A spacer device placed between the glazing and the mount in a frame
which prohibits the glazing material from coming in contact with the artwork.
2. An ornamental wood molding put outside the image and inside the matting
of a framed work of art.
FIRST EDITION.
The earliest edition of a book or a print to be taken.
FLAKING.
Loss of small islands of paint, or other surface material, or even
ground layers following cleavage, blistering, or buckling action in paintings
or similar works of art.
FLATTENING.
A restoration procedure involving controlled humidification and controlled
drying under pressure.
FORMAT.
Plates, blocks and screens, sheets of paper, film and negatives often
have recurrent formats, which means that the dimensions of a print frequently
recur.
FOXING, FOX MARKS.
The discoloration of paper or other surfaces by brownish or greyish
spots, believed to be caused by micro-organisms (mould) developing rapidly
at high humidities under stagnant conditions. This is frequently due to
artworks being framed without using archival conservation framing standards.
A good conservator can easily repair this type of damage.
FRONTISPIECE.
In the oldest sense of the word, the frontispiece refers to an ornate
title page in a book; more recently; it has applied to an illustration
placed before or opposite the title page.
GLASS
PRINTS.
The "cliche-verre" is sometimes translated as a glass print. Completely
distinct from this are certain decorative items produced in the late seventeenth
and early eighteenth centuries, which are also often termed "glass prints":
a mezzotint was glued face down onto glass, then rubbed from behind to
remove all the paper, hand colored, and framed.
GOUGE.
A tool used for cutting wood and linoleum, specifically to clear
away larger spaces of the block. Curved gouges may be obtained as well
as flat ones. V-shaped.gouges are used for cutting deep, angular furrows.
A gouge used in linocutting resembles a pen and is attached to a pearshaped
handle.
GRADATION.
Gradual strengthening, or weakening, of a tone.
GRAIN.
1. A loose description of aquatint ground and of its resulting effect
on an impression, and of any other printing element or impression with
dots or grain on its surface. 2. The irregular aspect of the surface of
a stone, plate or transfer paper in the lithographic method, necessary
to the firm adhesion of the marks of the crayon. It is created on the
stone or plate by an initial graining process. 3. The irregular aspect
of the surface of paper or of transparent film used in screenprinting.
HAND-COLORING
Hand-coloured prints have an old tradition and must be distinguished
from those printed in color (color printing). Coloring is done in watercolor
or gouache, with either a brush or a stencil cut to allow ink through
over the necessary areas directly onto the impression (as opposed to the
block, plate, etc.).
HATCHING.
Parallel lines which are cut close together in an engraving with
the aim of giving an effect, en masse, of a grey or dark tone. The lines
may be intersected by other parallel lines, a technique known as cross-hatching;
or they may be over-hatched. Parallel marks made with a drypoint were
used on geographical maps to represent water.
HC (HORS DE COMMERCE).
An impression pulled outside the edition for the personal use of the publisher
or artist.
HUMIDITY.
See also relative humidity. The absolute humidity is the content of
water vapor in the air measured as grams per cubic meter or in equivalent
terms.
IMITATION.
A reproduction of an original drawing or of a particular artist's
style.
IMPRESSION.
In printing terminology, an impression is any print taken from a
particular block, plate, etc. The word may be qualified to indicate the
type of impression, e.g. "natural" impression, pale impression, etc.
Types of impressions
include:
1."Cloudy". If the ink is not applied evenly in screenprinting, a "cloudy"
impression will result (from the French " nuage ").
2. Loose impression. A print on Indian or Japanese paper which has not been laid down on thicker paper (to strengthen it).
3. "Natural". From the French "epreuve nature": an impression taken from an intaglio plate after wiping it completely clean, as opposed to leaving a film of ink on its surface, or dragging some of the ink out of the lines to create special effects.
4. "Neigeuse". The French expression for an impression taken from a badly inked or misprinted plate which has caused white patches to appear where there ought to be lines.
5. Pale impression. One in which the design fails to show up sufficiently. This may be due to faulty printing; it also results from a plate with shallow incisions, such as one that has been well-used.
"IMPRESSIT" or
"IMP".
Indicates the name of a printer. The artist has occasionally acted
in this capacity as well as making the design.
IMPRINT.
The imprint obtained by making a mould of a relief block or an intaglio
plate (in, respectively, intaglio and relief).
INCANDESCENT.
As used in lighting, refers to the type of lamp with a tungsten filament.
The light produced is a continuous spectrum in the visible region, and
is on the 'warm' side, i.e. about 2,500-3,0000 Kelvin.
INITIAL.
A large typographical letter appearing at the beginning of texts.
It can be specially engraved and decorated with figures or various ornaments.
INK.
Colored liquid used for writing, drawing and printing. It can be
thick in texture, or even solid, in which case it is dissolved. A large
number of different types of ink are used in printmaking. Drawing inks
are used for preparatory designs on blocks and plates. A particular type
of ink is specially prepared for drawing on lithographic stone or on autographic
paper. Printing inks can either be water or oil based. In screenprinting
cellulose-based and plastic inks are also used. Other inks are specially
prepared for certain procedures, e.g. for use as a mordant, or in transfer
lithography.
INKING.
The process of putting the required amount of ink onto the necessary
parts of the printing element, i.e. the relief areas of a block, the incised
parts of an intaglio plate, the greased areas of a lithographic stone,
etc. It is applied with either a roller or a dabber; on an intaglio plate
pieces of muslin or a brush are also used, or it can be applied & la poupee.
In screenprinting the ink is scraped over the screen with a squeegee.
INPAINTING (RETOUCHING)
.
Introduction of new paint into areas of loss in an original construction.
INTAGLIO.
(See printmaking techniques)
A printing process in which the image is incised or etched into a
metal plate using a variety of techniques and tools.
"INVENIT" or "INV.".
Accompanies the name of the artist of the original design on a print.
JAPAN
PAPER.
A good quality paper which is lightly translucent and extremely resistant.
It is used for fine impressions. Imitation Japanese paper also exists.
JAPANESE WOODCUTS.
A Japanese technique of woodcutting.
KEY
STONE.
The stone on which the original drawing is made in lithography. It
can be copied for transfer impressions in order to avoid damage which
may be caused by over-handling.
KEY TRANSFER.
The transfer of each color from a transparency to a block for printing
in several colours. The line which forms the outline of each color on
the transfer can be called the key line. See: overprinting.
LAID
PAPER.
A type of hand-made paper which shows the pattern of the vertical
wire-marks and the horizontal connecting chain-lines of the wires in the
papermaker's mould.
LETTERING.
All printed inscriptions relating to the design represented in a
print. Written references on prints first appeared in the fifteenth century.
In the seventeenth century the lettering took on a particular importance
with the addition of dedications, mottoes, tokens of esteem, etc., to
the usual titles and descriptions. In the eighteenth century it became
habitual to take a proof of an engraving before lettering, i.e. before
any writing had been engraved. Proofs were also taken with the lettering
in the process of being made, e.g. with white lettering in which only
the contours of the writing have been engraved, with grey lettering in
which the letters have been lightly hatched, or with scratched lettering,
where the writing has been deleted. Some of the lettering concerns the
fabrication of the print. The author of the design or the original painting
is designated by name followed by: delineavit, del. (designed),
invenit or inv. (invented), etc. The author of an engraving itself
is described most frequently by: sculpsit, sculp., sc., incisit, incidit
or inc. (engraved); or equally by: fecit, fee., fe., ft., or f.
(made) which also applies to the craftsman of a print in any other technique.
Perfecit signifies the completion of the work, possibly by a second engraver.
The name of the publisher has for a long time been accompanied by excudit,
excud. Or excudebat, and more recently by chez or the
Italian version appresso. The name of the printer is followed by
formis and that of the lithographic printer by lith. Artists
who print their own prints may inscribe after their signature imp. Or
impressit. On some old French prints, the name of the dealer or
tradesman is found preceded by se vend chez. Copyrights granted
to engravers were expressed by A.P.D.R. Or C.P.R. (French royal
privileges) and by Published According to Act of Parliament in England
(from 1735).
LIGHT-STAINING.
A print which has been exposed to the light, over a long period,
without any protection, becomes dusty and dirty and acquires a stained
appearance.
LINE.
This refers to any line as it appears on an impression, whether taken
from the inked or uninked parts of the printing element; as well as to
the incisions made in a plate or block, and the marks on a lithographic
stone.
SIMPLE LINE.
A single line, i.e. one that has not been strengthened by successive
stages of cutting.
LINE ENGRAVING.
A term sometimes used to specify an engraving made with the burin.
LINING or RELINING.
The process of adhering a reinforcing fabric to the back of a canvas
painting, giving it new strength and durability. There are two types of
adhesives used: in glue lining, an aqueous glue composition is used; in
the wax-resin process an adhesive composition based on beeswax is employed.
In all cases, the infusion of the adhesive into voids in the paint layers
serves also to consolidate weakened paint layers. Relining refers strictly
to a second or subsequent lining, in which the old lining is removed and
replaced.
LINOCUT.
An abbreviation of linoleum cut. The technique is a derivation of
the woodcut but owing to the supple, relatively soft properties of the
material, linocuts have different characteristics. The material takes
all types of lines, but is most suited to large designs with contrasting
dark and light flat tints. The material is cut with small pen-like tools
which have a mushroom-shaped handle. The tools have a variety of forms:
straight and rounded edge, double-pointed, as a chisel or a Vshaped chisel,
etc. As on a woodcut, the relief parts of the block are inked. For printing
a large number of important proofs, the lino is attached to a wooden block.
Color printing is done with several lino blocks.
LITH.
Abbreviation of lithographer. In the nineteenth century it preceded
the name of the printer at the base of numerous lithographs.
LITHOGRAPH. (See
printmaking techniques)
Along with woodcutting and intaglio engraving, this is one of the
oldest methods of printmaking.
LITHOGRAPHIC ENGRAVING.
Engravings can be produced on a lithographic stone by a variety of
preparations. The lines achieved slightly resemble those of a steel engraving.
The technique lies half way between planographic and intaglio printing.
LITHOGRAPHIC ETCHING.
A polished lithographic stone can also be used for etching. The surface
is covered with liquid ground such as is used for intaglio printing. After
drying, the drawing is done with a blunt needle. A dilute acid is used
as a mordant. N.B. This must not be confused with the etching used in
lithography to fix the image to the stone.
LITHOGRAPHIC MEZZOTINT.
A method which is akin to mezzotint in metal engraving although it
does not attain quite the same quality. Various methods of working the
stone exist of which the aim is to create the white areas by scraping
away parts of a specially prepared black background.
LITHOGRAPHIC WASH.
A process used in lithography for obtaining the effects of a wash
drawing. It has also been known as a lithotint. It must not be confused
with a lithographic aquatint in which the grain is more marked. The color
is applied with a dabber.
LITHOGRAPHY.
With woodcutting and intaglio engraving, this is one of the oldest
methods of printmaking. It dates from the end of the eighteenth century.
It is based on the chemical fact that there is a natural antipathy between
grease and water. The image is drawn on a stone with a greasy ink which
is dark in color only to aid the draughtsman with his work, The stone
is then thoroughly dampened; the water remains on the ungreased areas
only. The printing ink is applied with a roller: it adheres only to the
greased parts. Lightly dampened paper is then placed over the surface
of the image, followed by a protective sheet. Stone and paper are passed
through a flat-bed scraper press.
Lithographic printing is a delicate operation necessitating a careful preparation of the stone and a particular kind of inking. The prints are not marked by the effect of the press as in intaglio printing, although a slight mark indicating the edge of the stone is sometimes visible.
Transfer methods can be used to avoid the difficulties involved in moving heavy stones round a studio. The drawings are made on transfer paper which is grained, or on autographic paper which is smooth, and then transferred to the stone. Lithographic methods have also been adapted to metal plates (grained zinc and aluminium). Lithographic color printing is done with several stones (or metal plates), one for each color
MARGIN.
Unprinted parts surrounding the design. Generally the two lateral
margins are of equal length; the upper and lower margins may be equal
but the latter is sometimes larger in order to allow space for signature,
numeration, title, etc.; at one time it may also have contained a cartouche.
A larger lower margin may be kept simply to balance the print within the
sheet of paper. The size of the margins also depends on the format of
the paper. Margins were usually clipped until the eighteenth century,
and from the beginning of the nineteenth their existence came to be regarded
as an important factor in assessing the commercial value of a print. If
clipped, the impression would be worth less, particularly if printed on
fine quality paper. Restored margins are known as false margins.
MARK.
1. Particular sign serving as the artist's signature on a print.
2. A vignette, sometimes accompanied by a motto, that publishers used
to place either on the title page or at the end of a book. 3. A stamp
or collectors mark that identifies a prior owner of a work, usually placed
on the back of the print or drawing.
MAT.
In the framing of works of art on paper, the mat is a cardboard with
a cutout window placed over the work to keep it a distance away from the
glass or other glazing material.
MEZZOTINT.
An intaglio printing process. The work is done in two stages. A metal
plate is initially grained by working over it systematically with a spiked
tool known as the rocker; this creates a multitude of fine dots all over
its surface. If inked, the plate would print a rich black. The second
stage of the process consists in smoothing away parts of the roughned
surface with the aid of a scraper and a burnisher in order to create the
white and highlighted parts of the resulting print. The scraping of the
plate is a skillful job; delicate tonal transitions can be obtained if
it is done well, but the flat appearance of some mezzotints is an indication
of the difficulties involved. This flatness is also caused by the fact
that mezzotint plates wear down very quickly. Color mezzotints can be
printed with several plates, one for each color.
MIXOGRAPHY (MIXOGRAPH).
Casting a copper printing plate from a high-relief collage or maquette
made up of various materials. The plate used is made up of a thick, resilent
material that absorbs ink and creates a frescolike quality.
MONOGRAM.
A combination of letters, usually initials of a proper name, or an
abbreviated signature. Many artists, and engravers in particular, have
signed their work with a monogram; those whose names have remained unknown
are called monogrammists.
MONTAGE.
The production of a composite image made from various elements as,
for example, in the combination of photographic positives or negatives
with drawn stencils in screenprinting.
MONOTYPE. (See
printmaking techniques)
A unique image printed from a polished plate, glass, metal, or other
material painted with ink.
MOULD.
1. In manual papermaking, the mould is a kind of tray, consisting
of crossed wires in a wooden frame, over which the paper pulp is spread.
2. A mould is made of a block or plate, in reverse to the original, when
making a replica of it (stereotype). The mould used for casting type is
known as a matrix.
MOULD, MILDEW.
A large group of small fungi, the vegetative structures of which invade
many organic substances. Provided sufficient moisture is present, these
structures or hyphae produce enzymes that dissolve or degrade the host
material. This chemical action may leave wastes that stain the hosts,
such as foxing marks on paper. On maturity, reproductive structures will
appear on the surface of the host as visible and often colored, furry,
or web-like clusters. Until mature, mould or mildew may not be detectable
except by a characteristic musty odor. Because mould requires moisture
for growth, such activity may usually be arrested by maintaining a dry
environment, i.e. below 65-percent RH.
MOUNT.
A protective backing of cardboard or thick paper attached to a print or
drawing.
MEZZOTINT. (See
printmaking techniques)
An intaglio method in which the surface of a metal plate is uniformly
incised, roughened, or textured with a spurlike tool called a rocker.
NEEDLE.
Many different types of needles (or points) are used in printmaking.
The drypoint is a small, fine needle, whose point can be sharpened at
various angles, each producing a different type of line. Double-ended
needles possess a differently sharpened point at either end. Etching needles
vary in thickness and are more or less sharply pointed, according to need;
choppes are broader than usual etching needles and are sharpened in an
oval section: they can produce variations in the width of a line according
to the angle at which the point is held. Diamond, ruby or sapphire points
are used for making light incisions in a metal plate or in a ground laid
over it. Points made of ivory or bone (with more rounded ends than those
of an ordinary needle) are used for tracing (to transfer a design), and
for making marks on a ground without penetrating the metal plate beneath.
NEGATIVE.
A " negative " impression produces white areas in place of the black,
or vice versa, e.g. an impression taken from an intaglio plate which has
been inked with a roller.
NIELLO.
A niello is the incrustation of an engraved silver or gold plate with
a metallic black enamel (Latin: "niggled"). A niello print is an
impression taken from such a plate before the enamel has been poured into
the furrows, or an impression taken from a sulphur cast of such a plate.
NUMBERING OF PRINTS.
Impressions taken from a particular edition are sometimes numbered.
The numbers are written at the base: the number of the impression within
the edition is followed by the total number printed. There usually is
NO correllation between print number and where in the edition the actual
print falls (i.e. print 1/100 is probably NOT the first impression taken
from a plate, it's the first numbered).
OFFSET
LITHOGRAPHY OR OFFSET.
One of the four major industrial printing techniques of which the
others are: letterpress, photogravure and screenprinting. It has become
the most commonly used method in commercial printing, although its importance
in printmaking is not very great. It is an extension of the lithographic
technique: the image is picked up from the stone, or more usually plate
(either zinc or aluminium which has either been grained or covered with
an absorbent oxide), by a rubber roller which then reprints it onto paper.
Text and image can be transferred photographically and prepared in the
usual lithographic technique based on the natural antipathy between grease
and water. The advantage of offset is that it enables the damping, inking
and printing itself to be done by a series of rollers which enormously
speeds the operation, thereby enhancing the commercial value of the technique.
ORIGINAL.
1. The original design is the one from which a copy or tracing is
made for the block, stone or plate. 2. An original print is produced when
the artist himself has prepared the block, plate or stone.
OVERPAINT.
The covering over of original areas, as opposed to the limiting of
retouches (in painting) to areas of damage.
OVERPRINTING.
There are three methods of color printing: by juxtaposing the colors;
by mixing the colors before printing; and by printing the colors on top
of each other, i.e. overprinting, to obtain gradations of tone and different
colors. This latter method takes into account the principal theory that
all color is composed of red, yellow and blue, and is used particularly
in photomechanical processes. Photographic negatives are made of these
colors by means of filters, and when transferred to plates are overprinted
to build up the image.
PAGE.
Each side of a leaf in a book is a page, whether printed or not.
PAGINATION.
Numeration of the pages in a book.
PAPER.
Papermaking involves mixing vegetable fibers and water into a paste
which is then drained, pressed and dried in a mould until a sheet is formed.
This has to be sized with glue or gelatine to give the paper its final
appearance. Linen or cotton rags are used to make good quality paper for
printmaking. "India" and Japanese papers are also imported for this use
on account of their high quality. Tracing paper is used for transferring
a drawing onto the plate or block. Formerly the paper with the drawing
on it was covered on the verso with black or red chalk and the design
was transferred to the plate by indenting its outlines on the recto. The
drawing may also be pricked for transfer. Special transfer paper is used
in lithography to transfer the image from the paper on which it has been
drawn onto the stone. It is grained if the image has been drawn in chalk
or crayon. A smooth autographic paper is used for transferring ink drawings
(see: transfer). Various types of sensitized papers are used in photomechanical
methods. Tissue paper is used for protecting freshly printed sheets and
for wiping the plate after inking in intaglio printing. Blotting paper
is used on sheets of dampened paper before printing, and for drying plates
after they have been etched and washed before printing.
PAPER CONSERVATOR.
An individual professionally trained to preserve and restore paper.
PATINA.
A surface formation on an object, e.g corrosion, oxidation, discoloration,
which may be either natural in origin, or artificially applied (for aesthetic
reasons) by the artist or craftsman.
PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES.
Photographic processes are used to create an image on sensitized paper,
either by means of a negative, or by exposing the paper directly to the
light, having previously blocked out parts of it with various objects.
The negative may also be prepared manually, as in the cliche-verre, a
process which could be classed among the printmaking techniques. Photomechanical
processes are those which involve a combination of photography with traditional
printmaking methods; a positive or a negative image can be reproduced
on the surface of any metal plate, stone, wood block or screen, provided
that it has been sensitized beforehand. Examples of photomechanical processes
are: line block, halftone block, photogravure, collotype, and such techniques
can also be applied to screenprinting and offset lithography. The artist
can also make an image by combining photographic materials (i.e. sensitized
paper, developer, fixative, etc.) in his own fashion. For a long time,
photomechanical means were rejected in the definition of original printmaking,
for it was not considered to be work done entirely by the artist's hand.
This restriction is no longer regarded as valid, for it is now appreciated
that the artist may use any photographic means at his disposal in the
making of a print.
PHOTOGRAVURE.
Sometimes known as heliogravure (particularly hand photogravure),
this technique is one of the most important methods of industrial printing
(the others being letterpress and offset lithography). It is an intaglio
process which can be divided into two procedures: (1) Hand photogravure,
a derivation of the aquatint in its method of obtaining tone. After sensitizing
a copper plate and exposing it to light to form the image, resin or bitumen
grain was scattered over it. The procedure continued as for a normal aquatint
plate. This technique subsequently developed into a totally photomechanical
process: (2) Machine photogravure, in which the tone is supplied by a
cross-line screen. It was discovered that the plate could be bent into
the form of a cylinder, a development which allowed very fast printing
speeds (rotogravure). The technique is used more for magazines and catalogues
than for print-making itself.
PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY.
A term referring to the use of photography in lithography and offset
lithography.
PH VALUE.
P(otential) of H(ydrogen). A method of measuring acidity or alkalinity,
numerically equivalent to 7 for neutral solutions, increasing with increased
alkalinity and decreasing with increased acidity. The pH scale commonly
in use ranges from 0 to 14.
PIGMENT.
The constituent in ink which gives it color
PITTING.
A fault which occurs on metal plates, particularly aluminium. Small
holes are also sometimes found on the rubber roller used in offset lithography.
An etching ground may also be pitted with small holes caused by an excess
of heat on application of the ground.
PLASTER CAST.
A type of trial proof taken from an intaglio plate. Plaster is poured
over the plate after it has been blackened with smoke, thereby producing
an exact mould of the design.
PLASTIC (ENGRAVING
ON).
Sheets of plastic can be engraved in the same technique as a woodcut
or wood engraving. The transparency of the material greatly facilitates
registration in color printing.
PLATE.
The plate is any metal printing element, whether an intaglio, relief
or planographic process is employed.
PLATE MARK.
The mark imprinted by an intaglio plate onto the paper (especially
visible at the edges) caused by the pressure of the rollers in the press.
PLUG.
A small piece of wood (or linoleum for a linocut) known as a "plug"
is inserted into the block as a means of replacing a bad error or a damaged
area in a woodcut. It is cut in accordance with the correction or restoration
to be made.
POCHOIR:
Stencil cut, coloration.
PORTFOLIO.
A pliable case, made of thick cardboard, frequently covered with leather
or cloth, in which prints are presented, stored, and conserved.
POSITIVE & NEGATIVE.
Photographic terminology is sometimes applied to prints; i.e. a positive
design is black on white, a negative one is white on black.
"POUPEE A LA".
The French term used for a method of coloring an intaglio plate by
hand. Contrary to usual methods of color printing, the different colours
are all applied on one plate with the aid of a stump of rag, known as
a "poupee" (or dolly).
PREPARATORY DRAWING.
Before making an engraving, woodcut, etc., a preparatory drawing is
made on the surface of the printing element. It may be a tracing or transfer
of the original design, or it may be an original itself, done with pencil,
ink, chalk or other medium.
PRESS, PRINTING.
The three most important types of press are: (1) the relief or typographic
press; (2) the intaglio printing press, also used in photogravure; and
(3) the planographic press used in lithography and offset lithography.
Within each of these types, the manual press is generally used by artists
making their own prints, and can be distinguished from the mechanical
press used in industry. 1. In the relief press (see: letterpress), a heavy
rectangular element, the platen, is lowered over the bed of the press
onto the paper and the block. 2. An intaglio printing press is comprised
of two cylinders, between which the paper and the plate are pulled under
great pressure. 3. In the lithographic press, the stone and the paper
are transported by a mobile bed to a position beneath the scraper which
supplies the pressure. There are different models of each type of press;
they vary according to the manufacturer and the period in which they were
made.
PRESSURE.
The pressure of an intaglio plate on the paper when pulled through
the press results in the formation of a plate mark. In French, a distinction
is made between the plate mark on the recto of the paper ("cuvette") and
that on the verso (" foulage ").
PRICKING.
A method of transferring a drawing, which consists in pricking with a
fine needle the outlines of the design, leaving a series of small holes
which may then be pounced. This involves shaking powdered red chalk over
the dots so that a trace of the design is obtained on the paper or plate
placed underneath. The process was much used in lithography for transferring
drawings.
PRINT.
The image obtained from any printing element. Originally, this was
either a metal plate, engraved in intaglio, or a wood block (or metal
plate) cut in relief. From the beginning of the nineteenth century, lithographic
stones were included, and today screenprinting adds a further type of
printing element. An impression taken planographically from a painted
surface may also be termed a print (see:monotype). In the past, a rigid
distinction was observed between prints obtained by manual processes and
reproductions obtained by photomechanical methods (see: photographic processes).
This distinction has less value today, because reproductions have been
incorporated into artists' original prints and are therefore not solely
produced, as originally intended, for mass production. A print is termed,
"original" if the artist of the design has worked on the printing
element himself, as opposed to reproductive and interpretative prints
which involve the use of an intermediary person to reproduce the design
onto the printing element. Original prints are often only produced in
small numbers; they may be numbered and signed by the artist. These distinctions
between reproductions (which occasionally may also be signed and numbered)
and original prints are, however, generalized. In practice the frontiers
are more imprecise, particularly in commercial printing. It must be noted
that some people have a much more rigorous definition of an original print
than others, e.g. of a photomechanically produced original print of which
only a very small number of impressions, numeration and a certificate
of authenticity will make it qualify.
PRINTING.
The action of making a print on a support, whether it be of paper
or of any other material, from a block, plate or stone or through a screen,
in any of the printmaking procedures.
PRINTING ELEMENT.
The part which is inked and produces the impression when printed,
i.e. the block, plate, stone or screen.
PROOF.
In a general sense, this word has been used to indicate any impression
of a print. Strictly speaking, it should be limited to those impressions
pulled by the artist to prove or test his work, whether before or after
completion of the block, plate, etc.
PROOF BEFORE LETTERING.
An impression taken before the lettering (dedication, title, names
of artist, engraver, etc.) has been engraved.
PROOF WITH LETTERING.
The lettering comprises all the writing underneath or above the design
on the plate, block, etc. Impressions are sometimes taken on intaglio
plates with scratched letters before the lettering is properly engraved,
or with it only partly inscribed.
PROOF (WITH REMARQUES).
A "remarque" is a scribbled sketch made by the artist outside his
main design which is eliminated later for printing the main edition.
PROOF: ARTIST'S
PROOF.
A proof reserved for the artist outside the main edition. This may
be noted in the margin (E.A. on French prints means "(epreuve d' artiste").
Some artists number these proofs. "Fine" proof. A definitive proof
taken with particular care, on high quality paper, with margins. Oil
proof. In the past, printers cleaned the plate with an oil-rubber
and then pulled an impression from it to ensure that no ink remained in
the incisions. Printer's proof. A proof reserved for the printer.
Signed proof. One which has been signed by the artist. Smoke
proof. (Fr. fume) A type of trial proof taken from a wood block which
has been blackened with smoke. It may be taken by the woodcutter to serve
as a model for the printer. More recently, the term has been used to describe
a fine quality impression taken by hand from a wood block. Trial proof.
A proof taken while work is still being made on the plate, stone, etc.,
to test the effect of inking and from which the artist can judge the amount
of additions or alterations to be made. Sometimes he may make corrections
by hand on the proof itself (a "touched" proof). In the past, woodcutters
pulled trial proofs by blackening the relief of the block with smoke and
printing it with the aid of a burnisher or rubber. Several trial proofs
may be taken until a definitive state is reached. The printer's proof
is often a trial proof. Wax proof. A type of trial proof taken
from an intaglio plate. The incisions are blackened with smoke and an
impression is taken onto a sheet of paper covered with white wax which
picks up the design.
PROVENANCE.
A history of ownership. The provenance of some works of art can be
traced back to the time that they were made.
PULP.
The fibrous substance resulting from the pulping process in papermaking.
RAKING
LIGHT.
The technique of illumination of the surface of a work of art (painting)
at one side, and at a very low (grazing) angle, which accentuates through
shadow effects the contours, texture, and other features. Damage such
as cracks, losses, cleavages, show up clearly in this manner.
REAM.
480 sheets of paper.
RECEPTIVITY.
In printing terminology, a surface is said to be receptive if it retains
the ink well. The word is applied to the rollers, the paper, or the plates
to be inked. Too much ink makes the impression heavy and thick, too little
will render it pale and irregular. Receptivity is also applicable to the
rubber rollers used in offset lithography, as well as to a freshly glued
surface in its "receptivity" of the other surface which is to adhere to
it.
RECTO.
(1) The front of an object. (2) The right hand page of an open book or
manuscript.
REGISTRATION.
Owing to the number of plates or blocks, etc., used in color printing,
a careful registration is required to ensure that each element prints
in the correct position. The method of doing it varies according to the
technique. In intaglio printing and lithography, needles are pierced through
the paper into holes, specially placed for this purpose in the plate or
stone.
RELIEF.
As opposed to intaglio and planographic printing, the black areas
of an impression taken from a block cut in relief are made by inking the
raised parts, thereby leaving the furrows to print white.
REPRODUCTION.
Before the introduction of photography, a work was reproduced by either
copying it identically, or interpreting it as closely as possible if a
different technique to that of the original was used. Engraving, wood
engraving and lithography were the most common methods of reproduction.
A print is therefore termed reproductive if it is made by someone other
than the artist of the original design, as opposed to an original print
which is made by the artist himself. These distinctions are many times
blurred in contemporary print-making where it seems that these days anything
goes.
RESTORATION.
Usually refers to corrective and restorative measures to compensate
for damages, deterioration and other defects. An attempt is made to return
the work, if not to its original condition, to a satisfactory aesthetic
state. Restoration is now considered an aspect of conservation.
REVERSE, IN.
1. The design of a print is always drawn in the reverse sense on the
block, plate or stone, so that it will print the correct way round. 2.
An image is reversed in all printing procedures except screenprinting.
The engraver, lithographer or woodcutter must, accordingly, always work
in reverse to his original design; a mirror is sometimes employed as an
aid.
REWORK.
When part of the printing element has been corrected or touched up.
ROULETTE.
An engraver's tool, having a revolving circular head, with either
a single serrated edge (the simple roulette), or a wider surface dotted
or lined in a variety of forms. It is used in some of the dot processes
(see: stipple, crayon manner) with the aim of creating areas of tone on
an impression; may be used either directly on the metal plate or through
the intervention of an etching ground. A tool similar to the simple roulette
was used, particularly in the nineteenth century, to perforate drawings
(see: pricking); and, in letterpress, to make dotted lines on sheets destined
to be detached.
ROYAL.
A format of paper (620 X 500 mm.).
RUBBING.
A method of taking an impression from a relief block with a leather
rubber or a burnisher used manually on the verso-of the paper. Rubbing
in lithography. 1. Rubbing ink is a soft ink applied directly to the stone
with the fingertip when drawing the design. 2. A crayon or ink drawing
may be rubbed with a stump or a brush to create a soft effect.
SCREEN.
The printing element in screenprinting. It is made by stretching material
(silk, nylon, metal mesh, etc.) over a frame.
SCREENPRINTING.
An ancient method of oriental printmaking which, considerably modified
and ameliorated, has become one of the four most important methods of
modern printing. Contemporary artists have made much use of it as a printmaking
technique. The principle of screenprinting consists in applying stencils
to a screen (constructed of silk or of some synthetic or metallic material),
in such a way that when ink is applied it is prevented from passing through
some parts while penetrating the rest of the screen, thereby printing
an image on paper placed underneath. The screen is stretched across a
frame and attached to a base in such a manner that it can readily move
up and down, so that paper can be easily placed and removed as required.
For each impression, the paper is placed against registration tabs to
ensure that the printing is done in the correct position. The ink is poured
over the masking at one end of the screen and when this has been lowered
into position, the ink is scraped across the screen with the aid of a
squeegee. The most important part of the process is the preparation of
the screen. Stencils may be applied in a variety of ways, including the
use of filling-in liquid, varnish or plastic film. A drawing can be made
directly on the surface with a special ink which is removed in readiness
for printing after the rest of the screen has been blocked out. A photographic
stencil is made by initially sensitizing the screen.
SIGHT EDGE.
This refers to the work of art visible to the viewer. The actual edge
of a painting or drawing may be concealed by the frame or mat.
SILKSCREEN.
The term usually used in America for screenprinting.
SIZING.
A substance added to paper to create a degree of water resistance.
SOFT-GROUND ETCHING.
One of the etching processes which aims to simulate the effects of
a chalk or crayon drawing (see: crayon manner). The plate is initially
covered with a soft ground. The drawing is made with a hard crayon on
paper which has been pressed to the surface of the grounded plate; the
ground adheres to the back of the paper where the crayon has left indentations
in it, thereby creating an impression on the plate of the marks of the
crayon. The paper with the attached ground is carefully removed and the
plate is bitten. It is possible to reproduce any kind of texture with
this method: textiles, rough papers, netting or leather can be pressed
into a soft ground in a similar fashion.
SPLATTER.
A method of applying the ink in lithography. It is sprayed through
a metal mesh onto the stone with the aid of a stiff brush. Areas which
are to remain white or be very lightly splattered are protected with gum
Arabic (staging out).
STATE.
The proofs taken while the artist is working on the plate, stone,
etc. to check different stages of his progress are known as states; each
one showing additional working constitutes a different state. The last
one is said to be the definitive state (or proof).
STEEL-FACING.
A process consisting of depositing, by electrolysis, a very thin layer
of iron onto a copper plate in order to reinforce it. Copper, the most
commonly engraved metal, can become scratched and worn down through use.
Furthermore, the wheels of the press tend to flatten out the indentations,
removing the finest ones altogether, and rub away the idiosyncratic burr
on plates engraved with the drypoint. In this respect steel-facing is
an added protective and allows a greater number of impressions to be made
while maintaining a constant quality. The steel-facing can be removed
if reworking on the plate is required. Zinc must be faced with copper
before being steel-faced. Chromium is sometimes used instead of steel,
generally in photogravure, to strengthen the printing drums. It has the
advantage of preventing oxidation (it is necessary to varnish or grease
a steel-faced plate), and of producing a surface that facilitates wiping
at the time of printing.
STEEL PLATES.
Iron plates are known to have been used before the sixteenth century
and Durer made several etchings on this metal. Steel, made from a mixture
of iron and a slightly larger proportion of carbon, did not become generally
used until the end of the eighteenth century, and this was particularly
in England. It can either be etched or engraved: frequently the indentations
on the plate are first made with acid and then finished off with the burin.
A steel plate has a particularly clean, sharp line that can be extremely
fine; it also produces many more impressions than a copper plate. It is
used in particular for book illustrations, stamps, book-plates, vignettes
and greeting cards.
STENCIL.
1. Stencils are an essential part of screenprinting: they are attached
to or incorporated with the screen to ensure that the ink passes through
in the correct places. They can be made in many different forms, e.g.
as a simple masking or covering stencil; as a "wash-out" stencil, which
involves drawing the design on the screen in a greasy substance, then
covering the whole screen with filler or gum, and finally dissolving the
greasy image in turps, thereby forming a 11 positive " stencil; or as
a photo-stencil, whereby photographic images are incorporated into the
screen. 2. Stencils are also used for coloring prints by hand. Stencils
of the areas to be colored are cut out in zinc or aluminium; the colors
are dabbed on with a large brush (known as a " pompon " in French); they
may be juxtaposed or superimposed over each other. The method was much
used in the coloring of maps, topographical prints and devotional woodcuts.
It is still used today for book illustration and on greeting cards. See:
hand-colouring, registration.
SUBSTRATE.
The primary layer of material; can relate to a mount substance or the
base material upon which a work of art is executed.
SUGAR-LIFT PROCESS.
A method of defining drawn areas on an intaglio plate. The necessary
area is painted directly onto the metal surface with Indian ink in which
sugar has been dissolved. This is covered with a stopping-out varnish
and, when the latter has dried, submerged in water which causes the sugar
mixture to swell, removing the varnish and exposing the metal at the parts
where the drawing has been made.
SUITE.
A set of prints dealing with the same subject, or by the same artist,
which are published as a whole. It can also refer to a series of prints
taken apart from an illustrated book.
SULPHUR PRINT.
There are various ways in which sulphur is involved in printmaking.
(1) A mixture of flowers of sulphur and olive oil can be applied directly
to the surface of a metal plate to produce a tone similar to that of an
aquatint. Some engravers spread the oil on first, and then apply the powdered
sulphur. (2) A sulphur proof may be taken onto a sheet covered with sulphur,
from an intaglio plate in which the incisions have been previously filled
with lamp black.
SUPPORT.
In a painting, the physical structure that holds or carries the ground
and paint film. Any material, such as fabric, wood, metal or paper, on
which a work of art is executed, serving as a structural base.
SURFACE TONE.
If a plate is not completely wiped before printing, " surface tone
" is created by the films of ink left on its surface. Selective wiping
creates surface tone.
TINT.
Generally speaking, a tint can be any color; more specifically it
is a variant shade obtained by mixing one color with another, particularly
white. The delicate series of lines used to denote areas of shade (as
opposed to those representing line) in wood engravings, were at one time
known as "tints"; hence tint tool, the type of burin used to produce them.
TONE.
The particular shade of a color; in printing terminology, tone is
opposed to line. It refers to non-linear techniques, such as wash or paint,
etc., and its interpretation into prints is effected by the tonal processes,
e.g. aquatint, brush etching, dotted manner, stipple.
TRANSFER.
The removal of the support (e.g. wood) of a painting and its replacement
by a more stable support. Partial transfer refers to retention o the original
ground layer with possibly a thin layer of wood, before reinforcing with
the new support material.
TRANSMITTED LIGHT.
The illumination of an object by placing the light source behind and
viewing from the front. Useful in revealing crack systems and other forms
of separation.
ULTRAVIOLET
LIGHT.
Primarily invisible light, ranging from the x-ray region, about 4 nanometers
wavelength to just beyond the violet in the visible spectrum, about 380
nanometers.
VARNISH.
Usually refers to the thin protective and aesthetic coating on a work
of art or museum object. There are natural and synthetic resin varnishes.
VERSO.
(1) The reverse or back of an object. (2) The left hand page of an open
book or manuscript.
WATERMARK.
Manufacturer's mark made in the paper. It is recognizable by its transparency.
WIPING (THE PLATE).
In all intaglio printing methods the plate is wiped after it has been
inked; the white areas of a print will not appear clean unless this is
done very thoroughly. Some ink may be purposefully left on the plate to
create surface tone, or some may be dragged out of the lines for further
effect.
WOODCUT. (See
printmaking techniques)
A method of relief printing in which wood is the printing element.
WOODCUT ENGRAVING.
(See printmaking techniques)
Another method of relief printing in which wood is the printing element.
WOVE PAPER.
A type of handmade paper produced from a mould with a mesh so tightly
woven as to leave no visible pattern.
ZINCOGRAPHY.
A term sometimes adopted from the French, meaning the use of lithography
on a zinc plate. As zinc may also be etched, it is best to avoid use of
the term without specification, since it could be taken to imply this
different technique as well.
